Turkish Studies - International, Year 2021 Issue Volume 16 Issue 7

Architectural Heritage and Conservation: In Honor of Prof. Dr. Mustafa Servet Akpolat

Çiler Buket TOSUN — 2024-08-29

On The Trail A “Leeuwendaalder (Lion-dollar)” Found in Divriği Castle Excavation

Meryem ACARA ESER — 2024-08-29

In this study, a “Leeuwendaalder (Lion-dollar)” found in 2014 in the Divriği Castle excavation will be introduced. Divriği Castle, whose first construction activity is believed to have taken place in the Byzantine Period, is one of the important castles of Anatolia’s Medieval-Turkish period. The castle is located in the southeastern part of Sivas, 1250 meters above sea level and on the floor and slopes of the valley of the stream which unites with Çaltı River which is one of the tributaries of the Fırat River. In the excavations which began in 2007, various finds from the Byzantine, Seljuk, Beyliks and Ottoman periods were excavated which shed light on the history of the castle. The 1648 dated “Leeuwendaalder” (Lion-dollar) which is the subject of this study was found in 2014 about 100 meters north of the Main Gate and in the south area of two stone carved sites. These sites which are originally rock tombs were used as residence/storage/workshop with the walls built in later times. The silver coin which is worth one daalder is 41 mm in diameter and weights 25.45 grams. In its obverse side, the inscription within two lines of a dotted circle surround a knight with an armor and helmet and a shield with a lion picture on it. On the back of the coin, there is a lion figure inside the inscription which is again within two lines of a dotted circle. It is understood from the inscription on its obverse side that the coin was Utrecht (Trajectum) print and the inscription on its other side indicated that it was printed in 1648. The 1648 dated silver “Leeuwendaalder” being the third find in Anatolia, in Divriği after the coins excavated in Gaziantep and Aydıncık, Mersin and the Nuremberg thimble and perhaps the other buried finds waiting to be excavated add importance to the area in terms of showing that the castle was a frequented place for Europeans in the 17th century as well.

Repair Conditions of Waqf Buildings in the Waqfiyyas of the Ottoman Period

Tuba AKAR — 2024-08-29

Waqf, which is an Islamic institution, in general, can be defined as the allocation of private property for the eternal use of public with the aim of religion and charity. In doing so, while the individual gets religious, social, political, and economical benefits, the state’s responsibilities of providing for public and social necessities of the society are made available in spaces such as külliyes, mosques, medreses, hans, baths, shops etc. which were built through the waqf institution. With the act of waqf, the property is no longer a private property; it becomes the property of God and it gains an untouchable character. Considering these features, the eternity of waqf is primarily aimed. The continuity of the waqf, whose physical presence comes into existence with architectural spaces of various qualities, is ensured by the continuity of these spaces. Therefore, the stipulations and necessities for the repair of buildings were determined by the waqf founders and documented in their waqfiyyas. This paper aims to examine the role of waqfs in the conservation of waqf buildings through the repair conditions found in waqfiyyas formed in the Ottoman era. With this aim when the repair conditions in the waqfiyyas are examined, it has been seen that the repair of waqf buildings is always a priority condition. In order to achieve this, it was stipulated that monetary resources should primarily be spent on the repair of waqf buildings. In addition, it is seen that the personnel who would do the repair works were also employed by the founder of the waqf in order for the repairs to be carried out continuously and urgently. As a result, it was seen that waqf founders have included all kinds of material and moral conditions for the conservation of waqf buildings in their waqfiyyas in order to ensure the continuity of their waqfs.

The Traditional Ula House of Ali Efendi, the Father of Architect Nail Çakırhan

Gökben AYHAN — 2024-08-29

Ula, one of the districts of Muğla, has largely preserved its traditional house texture. Houses in the district are mostly built on one wing of their gardens and have one or two floors. In Ula, as in the tradition of Ottoman-Turkish houses, there are examples of houses without a sofa, as well as plan types with an outer sofa, an inner sofa and a middle sofa. Most of the traditional Ula houses that survive today are examples from the early 1900s. There are more than two hundred historical houses in the district. Most of the residences, of which the single-storey samples constitute the majority, are about to turn into ruins. Ali Efendi’s House is among them. Today, the building is idle and losing its architectural feature day by day. In this study, the architectural and ornamental features of Ali Efendi’s House, which was not directly subject to any publication before, were examined. In addition to determining the place of the house in question between Ula and other Ottoman-Turkish houses besides the reflections of the local architectural features of the Ula houses, including his father Ali Efendi’s House, are emphasized on various construction activities carried out by Nail Çakırhan. Ali Efendi’s House, is one of the two-floor houses in Ula in harmony with nature. This house is also the house of the father of architect Nail V. Çakırhan (1910-2008), who won the Ağahan Award for applying the architectural tradition of Ula in his own house. The house of Ali Efendi, the father of Nail Çakırhan, where he was born and raised, is located at number 27 in the Alparslan Neighborhood of Muğla’s Ula District. The house was built on the northeast wing of the two-decare garden. The green painted lamb door, located in the northwest corner of the garden, opens to the courtyard. The building exhibits an example of the plan type with a middle sofa on both the ground floor and the upper floor. In the middle of the front of the house, there is a hexagonal projection of the ground and upper floor sofas rising on two floors. There is a kitchen, a middle sofa, a toilet and a bathroom on the ground floor. There are resting areas on the upper floor, including three rooms and a sofa. The connection between the two floors of the residence is provided by a single arm ladder located at the front of the house. Ali Efendi’s House was built in the years when Western influences began to reflect on the residential architecture in Ula. Spatial change in the process applied to a limited extent in the house, which largely preserved its traditional style. World-famous architect Nail Çakırhan has taken the traditional architecture of Ula, especially his father Ali Efendi’s House, as an example in his professional life. With the awareness of growing up in Ottoman-Turkish residential architecture in Ula, he has provided practical solutions to the realization of many house and tourism businesses in the province of Muğla. In this context, Nail Çakırhan, who pioneered the revival of the historical texture that was on the verge of extinction in the region, played an important role in keeping the architecture named after him in the region by being influenced by other Ula houses as well as his father’s house.

Defense Systems of the Bronze Ages at the Urla Peninsula

Tayfun CAYMAZ — 2024-08-29

The Urla Peninsula, in the middle of the Western Anatolian coast, is a bridge that brings together the Anatolian mainland and Aegean cultures. As a matter of fact, it has hosted various cultures associated with these two aspects throughout the ages. While two of the twelve Ionian cities are located on the peninsula, both are close neighbors. However, the geographical structure and location of the peninsula creates a defense and security weakness. Throughout the ages, the peninsula has been exposed to security-oriented activities such as piracy, banditry and smuggling and, on the other hand, military attacks by organized political forces. Archaeological data have revealed that such threats were also present in the protohistoric period. During the Early Bronze Age, Liman Tepe on the Urla İskelesi became a regional administrative and political center with a magnificent castle, lower city and port. In the same period, it is seen that a security and defense system which has the ability to keep the main roads and bays of the peninsula under control. Within this system, Gölkayası near Alaçatı has control of the direction of Samos Island whereas Kale Tepe controls the Urla-Çeşme road, and Yaren Tepe controls the direction of Sığacık Bay. Within the 2^nd millennium BC, narrow regional administrative structures began to be replaced by powers dominating larger regions. The material culture in the settlements of this period on the peninsula is parallel to Anatolia. In addition, in the process, first Minoan, then Mycenaean commercial and cultural influences emerged. Few defense units are known from the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. These are mostly located in the eastern part of the region, which is connected to the mainland.

An Example of the Late Ottoman Period Architecture: Ankara Industry School

Kübra ÇEBER — 2024-08-29

This study is about the Ankara Industry School, one of the industry, education, and architecture developments during the Ottoman modernization process. The school, which opening date is unknown and was first mentioned as a youth detention center in the 1872 almanac of Ankara, is a vocational education institution essentially aimed at taking in poor and orphaned boys and teaching them a profession. A new building was built for the Ankara Industry School, which foundations were laid in 1901 and which operated in various facilities for rent in its initial phase. With its administration-classroom structure and workshops surrounding the inner courtyard from three directions, the school, which is one of the first examples of zoning focused on Bankalar Street with the Late Ottoman Period, was able to provide education and accommodation for its students under one roof. This study aims to introduce the design understanding and architectural features of Ankara Industry School, to demonstrate the school's role in the process of change in Ankara, and to evaluate it in the context of its period-typical features by comparing it to other industrial schools and contemporary educational structures in the context of architecture. As a result of the study, it was found that Ankara Industry School, with all its characteristics, contributes to the references of its time. It was underlined that the school had an important place in the identity of the city of Ankara, which has transformed from a small town into the capital of Turkey. The uncertainty in the construction process of Ankara Industry School illustrates the impact of the educational model of industrial schools on the design of the space, the identity of the architect, and the problem of the premise between the building and the layout plan of 1911. The impact of the simplified Neo-Renaissance style in the school's design concept was seen, and it was concluded that the school was a pioneer in the 1911 layout plan due to the discussions. Moreover, it should be pointed out that the construct and the planning scheme of the school, which have survived until today without losing their function and originality, have been taken as an example and interpreted in vocational schools that train in different fields in the Republican Period.

Misis (Havraniye) Han

Ökkeş Hakan ÇETİNNurşen ÖZKUL FINDIK ,Muhammet GÖRÜR — 2024-08-29

Misis (Mopsuesta, Mamistra) is on the commercial, military and pilgrimage route to Northern Syria and Mesopotamia via Adana and Belen Pass, coming from the direction of Tarsus and Gülek Straits. Thus, it is of great strategic importance. In addition, the goods in the trade caravans coming from Erzurum and Trabzon in the Middle Ages were stored by Italian merchants by descending to Misis via Göksun. Or the distribution of goods was made by sending them to Yumurtalık via the Ceyhan River or Gökvelioğlu. This shows that Misis was an important center in the Middle Ages, as it was in almost every period. For this reason, trade structures are as important as the bazaar and market in the settlement. Khan of Misis, which is one of these buildings and constitutes our study subject, is located in Adana Province, Yüreğir District, Yakapınar Town, Geçitli/Havraniye Village borders, just southeast of Misis Stone Bridge on the Ceyhan River and on the eastern side of the Adana-Ceyhan road. As a result of the excavations for the restoration carried out in 2015, most of the parts that remained under the ground were unearthed. The building has been demolished up to the foundation level, except for the northern wall and the rectangular vaulted sections in the south. However, the plan features can be determined partially based on the existing remains. Researchers divide the Mamluk Khans into two types as square and rectangular. Khan of Misis is also included in the square plan, single storey type, the courtyard of which is surrounded by spaces in the form of a gallery. This building can be dated to the end of the 14th century or the beginning of the 15th century, taking into account the features such as plan, facade layout and ornamentation program.

Preservation and Sustainability of Traditional Rural Areas Which Were Ethnically Diverse in the Past: Example of the Village of Germuş in Şanlıurfa

Sümeyra ÇİFTÇİNeslihan DALKILIÇ — 2024-08-29

The village of Germuş is an old settlement which is today registered as a neighborhood under the town of Haliliye in the city of Şanlıurfa. It was an Armenian village in the 1900s and it remained abandoned for a while after the Armenians immigrated to Mosul and Aleppo in 1915. After the establishment of the Turkish Republic, the village was donated by Atatürk to Iraqi Uceymi Sadun Pasha, who contributed greatly to the liberation of Urfa. The village of Germuş is important not only because of its archaeological sites, its church, and traditional house fabric but also for the continuity of the village life which is remarkable in terms of social sustainability. Germus Village has entered a period of rapid deterioration today. For this reason, it is of great importance to protect and sustain it and transfer it to future generations. The purpose of this article is to document the tangible and intangible cultural heritage values and conservation problems of the Germus Village, which has not undergone comprehensive conservation-documentation work, and to provide some suggestions for the protection and sustainability of the heritage of the village. The first step of this research was to document the history of the village from written and oral sources through observations and interviews. In the second stage, traditional buildings in the village were identified and documented, and conservation problems were determined. In the third stage, some solutions for the protection and sustainability of the historical rural fabric have been suggested. The results of this study will contribute to the documentation and sustainability of the cultural heritage and the plans for preservation of this heritage.

Ağılkaya Village of Sivas Central, Turan Yalçın’s House

Ebru Bilget FATAHA — 2024-08-29

The subject of this study is the data on murals and paintings in Turan Yalçın’s house located in Ağılkaya Village of Sivas central district. Ağılkaya located about 26 km from Sivas central district is one of the villages which has been an old settlement area. There are many village chambers which are in dilapidated condition in the village. Turan Yalçın’s house is one of the two registered guest rooms today and it has survived until the present time in good condition. Turan Yalçın’s house consists of an entrance area and a single room. The entrance area of the house was used as a woodshed and catery. There are wooden pillars, a wooden ceiling rose carried by these pillars and a plaster cast oven and mihrab niches in the room which is built from rubble stones with a flat roof covered with soil. The rectangular shaped room is organized in the shape of a half-raised platform. In the ornaments of the house, murals done with paint on plaster, wood and plaster casts are used. The murals painted on plaster with red and black paint inside the house depict landscapes, the star and crescent, flowers in vases and objects such as ammunition case, bayonet rifle, the Qur’an hung together with a gun and sword, weights and gun carriage. The wooden materials are used on the ceiling and ceiling roses with the purpose of ornamentation. The plaster casts are seen on the two sides of the oven niche as oil lamps stands and embossed multi leafed flowers. The oil lamp hanging from the plaster mihrab niche is another striking ornamentation. Turan Yalçın’s house is very important in the sense that it contains ornamentations in a remote village house which is quite far from the period’s capital Istanbul.

One Artist, Two Minbars: Reflections on the Minbars of Manisa Ulu Mosque (1376) and Bursa Ulu Mosque (1399)

Sema KÜSKÜ — 2024-08-29

Two of the principalities that emerged in different political and social environments are the Ottomans (1299-1923) and Sarukhanids (1300-1410). Although these two principalities sometimes form alliances, they are in constant competition with each other. This mode of rivalry has affected the artist choices of the sultans as well as the construction activities. Moreover, the artist preferences of the patrons were accepted as a display of power and a means of self-expression. For this reason, it is significant that Bayezid I had the minbar built by the same artist 23 years after İshak Çelebi's, even though their power and balance of power were different. The name of this Antep origin artist is “amel-i el Hac Muhammed bin Abd-ul Aziz ibn-ül-Daki el- Ayintabi”. When we compare the quality, monumentality and craftsmanship of these two minbars which are present in the mosques which were built under the patronage of İshak Çelebi (1359?-1388) and Bayezid I (1389-1402) it is possible to question the power of the aforementioned rulers of the era. As it is known, minbars symbolize the most political side of mosques because of the khutba being read on them. If this building is a sultan's mosque located in the center of the capital, as in the case of Bursa Ulu and Manisa Ulu Mosques, the political aspect of the minbar turns into an "image". For this reason, the monumentality and fine workmanship of the minbars are very important. In addition to monumentality and fine workmanship, another important data on these minbars that refers to the "image" are patrons inscriptions. In addition to the minbars, the architectural elements of the mosques (such as the plan scheme, material-technical features, facade designs and monumentality) reflect the features that will document the strong political personality of the period. For this reason, our aim is to try to read the historical and political structure of the period by examining the reflection of power on architecture through these two minbars.

The Castle of Eskihisar

Bilge BAHAR — 2024-08-29

Eskihisar Castle is located in Eskihisar Village in Gebze, whose name is thought to be Niketiaton in the Byzantine period. The article discusses the location of Niketiaton, the historical and architectural features of the castle. In the period between 9th and 14th centuries, Bithynia gained importance in terms of its defense structures; within the other structures of the region that formed its network of defense, transportation and trade, the inner castle comes forth as an interesting example because of its plan and architectural elements like a domestic building and fireplace. As a result of a comparison with the other defensive structures in northwestern and western Anatolia, we believe that the inner castle can be dated to the 13th century. After the comparison, the framed technique and brick decorations on the inner castle seem datable to the 13th century, as these applications are comparable to the Lascarian examples found by Foss on the structures in Lydia. When the historical background is taken into consideration, inner castle can belong to the second half of the 13th century, after 1241, when the Gulf was again under Byzantine rule during the reign of John Vatatzes. The building phases and dates suggested by Foss seem compatible with the historical data but the material and technical data of the castle point to a later date, which is inconsistent with the records about Niketiaton in the sources. The limited number of comprehensive and detailed studies on Byzantine defense structures caused the lack of sufficient comparison data for our research. It is clear that a detailed examination of the defense structures built especially in northwestern Anatolia during the period between the Battle of Manzikert and the conquest of İstanbul will provide important data in terms of Byzantine and Ottoman history and architecture.

The Defense in the Rural of Myra (Demre) City in the Byzantine Period: Ayiveliler Fortress

Bülent İŞLER — 2024-08-29

Myra, which constitutes the Demre district center of Antalya province, is an ancient coastal city located in the middle of the Lycian region, starting from Phaselis in the east and extending to the Gulf of Fethiye in the west. Myra developed during the Byzantine period and became the religious and administrative center of the Lycian region in the 5^th century. In terms of its location, the city was a stopover and supply point for sea transportation in the Mediterranean, as well as had an important religious place with its churches containing the relics of the holy saints. Lycia was one of the areas in the Eastern Mediterranean where a lot of invasion and piracy activities took place. The geographical location of the Lycian region has made the region an open target for pirates and foreign powers throughout history. Between the end of the 5^th century BC and the first half of the 4^th century BC was a particularly difficult period in which the Lycian city-states struggled both among themselves and with invading foreign powers. After the conversion of Lycia to the Roman province in 43 AD by Emperor Claudius, the invasion and piracy gradually decreased. The peaceful environment of the region was disturbed by the attacks of the Sassanids at the beginning of the 7^th century followed by Arab attacks that lasted for nearly 300 years. It is seen that the coastal cities in particular were affected by these attacks. As a matter of fact, during periods of severe attacks, the retreat of people to safer rural areas of mountains were supported by architectural remnants. The people living in the countryside have built defensive structures on the slopes and important valleys along the coast against the dangers that could arise from the sea. In the Classical and Hellenistic periods, when the attacks were intense, sheltered multi-storey buildings with the appearance of towers became the living place of people engaged in agriculture. Tower farmhouses continued to be used for rural area security during the Roman and Byzantine periods. In addition, during the Sassanid and Arab invasions at the 7^th-9^th centuries, many small castles were built for rural security. A series of small castles of Byzantine period were identified during the surveys in the rural area on north of the city of Myra. Byzantine castles are located in the upper part of the Myros valley, stretching from the city of Myra to the Kasaba Plain. The castles, which are connected with each other, overlook the Myra and Kasaba plains and the Myros valley. Certainly, these castles were built to protect both the people living in the mountainous area and the ancient Roman road in the valley. One of these castles is located in the Ayiveliler, which is the subject of this article. In the article, it is aimed to introduce the architectural features of the castle, to evaluate its place and importance in the security of the rural area together with other defensive structures.

Tradition, Belonging and Destruction: The Old Mosque of Çaykaya Village

Muzaffer KARAASLAN — 2024-08-29

Wall paintings and painted decorations are an important art form that has been practised by artists for centuries and has become an integral part of architecture. This art type, which was embraced by many Ottoman artists, continued without interruption after the Republic. The decorations of Çaykaya Village Old Mosque in Ankara, which are examined in the scope of this study, belong to the post-Republican period. Although the wall paintings and painted decorations in the building belong to 1960, they show great similarity with the examples from the late Ottoman period. In fact, the themes chosen exhibit the continuation of the Ottoman painted decoration tradition in the Republican period. This clearly proves that folk artists did not abandon the tradition after the Republic. In this study, not only the wall paintings and painted decorations of the building will be introduced, but also the belonging of the ornaments will be discussed and opinions on their place in folk culture will be presented. Another focus of the study is the issue of protection. The fact that the buildings in the Anatolian countryside built in the middle of the 20th century haven’t been registered causes many of them to be ignored and even to be ruined. As a matter of fact, we face a group of "trivialized" buildings in Turkey. However, these architectural works are very important in terms of carrying the traces of traditional folk art. Çaykaya Village Old Mosque is one of the buildings which is on the brink of extinction in terms of both architectural characteristics and wall paintings and painted decorations. This study will also focus on the issue of the protection of the mosque.

Burials in the Soğanlı Valley: The Life of the Monuments

H. Ceylan KARACA — 2024-08-29

The article intends to dwell on some of the churches and complexes in the Soğanlı Valley, to focus on their locations in the settlement and the burials in or around them, with the aim of making suggestions on their usage and in which way they expanded within a certain time period. The monuments mentioned in the article are the churches 26, 27 and 27a, the Complex of St. Barbara, the churches 29, 30, 31 and 32, Yılanlı Chapel, two churches of the Complex of Karabaş, the churches 1 and 2, the churches of the Kubbeli Complex, and the six burial cones to the east of the Geyikli Monastery. Some of the churches without direct attachment to any of the complexes and which had intensive or limited burials do not bear wall paintings or inscriptions to date or compare them. Still, it should not be completely ruled out that such churches had organic and liturgical connections with religious and domestic complexes. At the end of the study, it seems reasonable to suggest that the valley housed churches primarily carved out to house the burial of a family member, which later developed both into a cemetery and a family church of a domestic complex; churches expanded around a solemn figure, where his/her grave ensured the church and its religious community to carry on its presence; churches expanded around an ascetic or a simple villager, which turned into a complex used by the villagers and for their burials.

The Armenians of Ankara: The Surp Asdvadzadzın Monastery

Nurdan KÜÇÜKHASKÖYLÜ — 2024-08-29

From the sixteenth century onwards, Ankara developed in parallel with its weaving sector that invigorated the economic life in the city; resulting in the growth of its Armenian population who acted as intermediaries to European merchants. Due to the activities of missionary priests in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many families in the city converted to Catholicism, and the Armenians of Ankara were separated into Gregorians, Catholics and Protestants. The subject of this study is the Gregorian Armenian monastery mentioned by travelers. It served as a spiritual center due to Ankara’s status as a holy place and was known by many different names: the Ankara Surp Asdvadzadzin (Holy Mother of God) Vank, Saint Marie and the Garmir Monastery (The Red Monastery)”. It did not survive and has never been the subject of a monographic study. The Surp Asdvadzadzin Monastery was known to be still active in 1914, and it was the oldest Armenian monastery in Western and Central Anatolia. The core structures of the monastery are thought to have been built in the twelfth century, although there are no definitive data to confirm this. The main structures were erected or renovated around the mid-eighteenth century. The monastery was devoted to the Virgin Mary and built on the shores of the Çubuk River, which corresponds to today’s Etlik district. The eighteenth and nineteenth century travelers emphasized that the structure was located in the suburbs, with agricultural activity and orchards around it. From 1915 onwards, it was turned into a “prison camp” for prisoners of war from World War I, and then burnt or demolished. Although nothing remains of the Surp Asdvadzadzin Monastery, its depictions in paintings and etchings give important information about the structure. With the help of sources like the Ottoman Archives of the Prime Ministry, missionary reports, travelers’ accounts, Armenian sources, contemporary newspapers, paintings, etchings, photographs and postcards, this study not only examines structures that have disappeared, but also aims to present a well-rounded history of the city.

Some Thoughts on Architect Alexandre Vallaury’s Grave with New Photos in his Centennial Anniversary of Death

Mehmet Çağlayan ÖZKURT — 2024-08-29

Alexandre Vallaury was a Levantine architect and professor of architecture who was born in Istanbul in 1850. After his secondary education Vallaury went to Ecole des National Beaux-Arts in Paris, one of the most important education institution in architecture, and studied there for nine years. After his education in Paris, he returned to İstanbul and started crafting his famous works which would leave his mark on Ottoman architecture. In addition to his architectural efforts, Vallaury played an important role in establishing and structuring Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi Âlisi [the School of Fine Arts] thanks to his close relationship with Osman Hamdi Bey, and taught architecture at this school for twenty-five years. The nationalist tendencies brought about during the Second Constitutionalist period after 1908 shaped and ended the career of the architect. Vallaury, who, upon this development, resigned -or was forced to resign- from his position at the School of Fine Arts, chose to leave Istanbul, moved to Grasse, France and lived the rest of his life there. In the earliest monographic works relating to the the architect’s life and family, the grave of the architect was searched in Feriköy Latin Catholic Graveyard in İstanbul; while finding some members of the family in this graveyard, the grave of Alexandre Vallaury was not found. In a PhD dissertation of 2014, it was stated that the architect’s Grave is in Grasse, but the study did not supply any visual material about the grave. This study aims to present the visuals of the grave, and supply new information about the architect’s life in his centennial anniversary of death.

Remarks on the Settlement and Social Pattern of the Ihlara and Belisırma, Ihlara Valley in Byzantine Period

Mustafa Sacit PEKAKHülya COŞGUNARAS — 2024-08-29

The Ihlara Valley (Peristremma), located in Güzelyurt (Karbala/Gelveri) district of Aksaray, is an important settlement of Cappadocia for the Christians of medieval period. Although the Christian presence in Cappadocia was well-known since the 1st century, it was in the 3rd century when the region became the important centre of Christianity and the religious living was shaped by the three Cappadocian fathers, namely Gregory of Nazianzos, Gregory of Nyssa and Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea. Basil the Great founded the first cenobitic monasteries of Cappodocia which also underpinned the Byzantine monastic system. Although he was the founder of monasticism both in Cappadocia and Anatolia, there exist no written primary sources directly indicating the presence of monasteries in the region. The presence in question was tried to be demonstrated by archeological data. Finely carved, well-organized complexes with churches attached were identified as monasteries. Besides, early travelers and early scholars visiting Cappadocia characterised it as a ‘monastic region’ only inhabited by monks. Within a similar generalisation Ihlara Valley, with its 14 km length and northwest-southeast direction, was also defined as a monastic settlement as well because of its natural land form suitable for seclusion and because of the density of many churches, complexes and other religious spaces. The recent studies in the region, on the other hand, discuss that such complexes were actually the mansions of the aristocrats and the powerful (dynatoi) resident in Cappadocia. Our research in Ihlara suggested that the rock-cut complexes were indeed the residences of the elite whose presence was certified by the wall paintings and the donor portraits in the churches of the valley. In this present study, we aim to make an assessment on the wall paintings, inscriptions and newly-found complexes of the Ihlara and Belisırma settlements. Furthermore, by examining the actual entities of the complexes that were formerly identified as monasteries, we intend to discuss new remarks and suggestions on the settlement pattern of these setlements.

Kars Mağaracik, Greek Village and its Chapel

Güner SAĞIR — 2024-08-29

Kars was occupied by Russian army in 1877 on Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 also known as “93 Harbi” (War of ‘93’). The city was governed by Russians for 40 years between 1878-1918. Mağaracık (Ataköy) is one of the villages that was used as a Greek immigrant’s settlement while the area was under Russian ruling. This text is mentioned about single nave chapel which is located on rural area of the village. Furthermore, the history of the village is mentioned, and the structure is introduced with data of field work. Mağaracık, known as Ataköy nowadays, is found 13 km south of Kars. Mağaracık is the one of the villages that the Greeks which migrated from Pontus after 1878, the period when the Russia governed Kars, was settled. 302 male, 306 female, 628 in total were lived in 68 houses according to 1886 Russian sources. Estimated Greek population was 1300 in 1918 which increased to 1600 in 1919. The chapel is located southeast of the village and near the creek bed and slope in the outside of residential area. Structure was examined under archeological survey and documentation was completed in 2013. In 2018, the structure was visited again to control while another survey was continued in the area. Although the exact construction date of the chapel is unknown, it is likely to have been built in Russian period between 1879-1918. The structure is in the form of a rectangle with 8.95 m. length including the apse and 5.34 m. width externally. It is composed of a single nave and a single apse and probably covered with a barrel vault. Although its size is small and its plan is simple, the chapel in the village of Mağaracık is important in terms of giving an idea about the religious structures of the Greek population who lived in Kars during the Russian period.

Wall Paintings in Ürgüp Sucuoğlu Mansion and Their Conservation Problem

Ayşe Pelin ŞAHİN TEKİNALP — 2024-08-29

Ürgüp, one of the most important settlements in Cappadocia, is located 20 km east of Nevşehir. Despite the dense non-Muslim population in the region, the intensity of domestic and religious architecture in the Muslim neighbourhood is remarkable. One of the extant and important examples of this domestic architecture is Sucuoğlu Mansion, and the present study aims to deal with two city views in its main room. The landscapes on İstanbul and Edirne show documentary features, whereas they grab attention with their depictions suitable for the spirit of the period. Spectacularly, zeppelins, balloons and airplanes float through the sky of both cities at the same time. In addition to the crowdedness of İstanbul at the beginning of the twentieth century, all the mosques and bridges of the city are depicted along with the Bosphorus traffic. The city view on Edirne displays the depictions of zeppelins and planes over bridges, trains and mosques. While describing the depictions of the cities of İstanbul and Edirne, the study discusses the changes, developments and innovations in aviation within the era and it examines how the Ottoman Empire followed such advancement. There has never been a moment in history when a balloon, plane and zeppelin were simultaneously in the sky in İstanbul and Edirne. For this reason, it becomes clear from the publications that the Ottoman Empire followed the developments on aviation, it is possible as well to allege that the wall paintings were used as a means to convey the visual news. The current state of the painting is deplorable. Confessions of love engraved or dyed with spray indicate that historical and cultural heritage suffered brutally in the hands of ignorant, vandalized people. This study will use the photographs taken before such vandalizm to evaluate the wall paintings.

Preliminary Investigations within the Conservation of Wall Paintings In the Late Roman Villa of Paphlagonia Hadrianoupolis

Ezgin YETİŞMurat EROĞLU ,Kıymet DENİZ ,Yusuf Kağan KADIOĞLU — 2024-08-29

It consists of preliminary studies carried out the wall paintings found in the Late Roman Villa, Karabük Hadrianoupolis Ancient City. In the examination studies; the conservation status of the paintings, past restorations, humidity conditions, UV-light examinations, optical microscope images and analytical measurements of the samples taken from the paint and renders were evaluated. Then some suggestions were given about the conservation processes. There are wall paintings in the room of 3, 4 and 5 in the villa. Merely the protection cover of room-3 was removed and samples were taken. Thin-section petrography, cross-section optical microscope images, FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy, XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence), XRD (X-ray diffraction) and CRS (Confical Raman Spectroscopy) were examined. Lime, sulfate salts and acrylic resins were determined in IR spectrum and acrilic resins may be used in past restorations. Mortars with medium hydraulic and natural cement renders/mortars in XRF, calcite crystal structures in XRD; pigments based on carbon and siderite (FeCO₃) in CRS were identified. Broken bricks (cocciopesto) and natural fibres mortars are observed in thin-section petrography. Moreover, the images in cross-section optical microscope examinations indicate fresco techniques. In the 5-day preliminary study, which started with the removal of the protective cover of the wall paintings and completed with a new cover, the moisture changes of the plaster was determined and 80% relative humidity were measured. Humidity control was ensured and past retouching/overpaintings was tried to be determined with UV-light. Within the framework of analytical studies and observations, conservation suggestions were presented such as drainage and temporarily roof covering on wall paintings, cleaning process of the fresco painting technique, removing the white layer based on limestone and preventing the plant growth.

Transformation and Conservation of Pagan Spaces in Late Antique Cities

Şener YILDIRIM — 2024-08-29

The most important factor in the establishment of the built environment of the cities in the Ancient Period was the financial support of the wealthy nobility who formed the city council. The quality of the structuring, which arose as a result of the nobility's desire to make the city they reside in beautiful and pleasant, must have definitely been directly proportional to the financial power of both the city and themselves. The financial challenges that began to emerge throughout the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, as well as the resulting increased taxes, prompted wealthier citizens to spend less on urban public works. Financial and administrative power shifted from pagan urban nobility to Christian clergy and Christian philanthropists in Late Antiquity. The shift in power dynamics resulted in the rapid spread of Christian ecclesiastical structures in cities. It had not always been easy for religious structures to find a place in the urban built environment. As a solution for this issue, conversions in the form and function of pagan structures emerged. At this stage, it is observed that certain pagan structures were destroyed, while others were partially or totally converted. The magnitude and quality of this conversion emerge as being directly proportional to the city's financial power. It is seen that, in larger cities with better financial conditions, not only the preservation or the partial conversion of existing monumental structures, but also the maintenance, repair, and renovation of urban spaces, continues. The preservation of spaces associated with entirely discarded old religious beliefs implies the continuation of cultural memory as well as the existence of a preservative understanding. However, the fact that this preservative approach was more intensely pursued in relatively wealthy cities can be explained by the fact that the rise of this viewpoint was likewise tied to financial power.

Secret Evidences of the 14th Century Ottoman History: Archaeological And Architectural Heritage

Hasan YILMAZYAŞAR — 2024-08-29

The founding period of the Ottoman Principality has been the subject of many scientific publications. However, our knowledge of not only the history of this period, but also many facts such as culture, art, architecture, economy and institutional structure is extremely limited. There are still many divergent opinions as to the origins of the Ottomans and the date in which the Beylik was first founded. Most of what is known about the 14th century of the Ottoman Principality consists of the data in the Ottoman chronicles written after the second half of the 15th century. In this context, the existence of disjointed and incomplete information in modern historical studies and the existence of different views and thoughts on many issues are better understood. Another important problem is the inadequacy of alternative field studies and the ignoring of existing studies due to the lack of interdisciplinary collaboration. This being the case, the main purpose of this article is to emphasize the vitality of the archaeological and architectural data concerning the socio-cultural structure of the early Ottoman period. For this purpose, the reason why the Ottoman archaeology is indispensable for researchers of the Ottoman period will be explained through important historical examples. Another important source of information is the Ottoman architectural works. If read properly and correctly, architectural works/remains provide content that is a document for many scientists, especially archaeologists, art historians, architects and historians. In this article, architectural data will be evaluated in the context of cultural interaction and social cultural structure.

Niğde Castle Protection Decisions and Special Project Areas

Mehmet TUNÇER — 2024-08-29

This is written text as a gift to Mustafa Akpolat; our teacher and friend from METU Faculty of Architecture, Restoration Dep., whom I have known since the 1980s, worked with from time to time, worked together at conferences and scientific events, and always guided us in conservation. We worked with him from time to time and gave joint products. In paper; "Eskisaray and Kale Neighborhood Conservation Plan Decisions" in force in the First Degree Archaeological, Urban - Archaeological and Urban Sites, where Mustafa Akpolat did his "Art History" research, and in this context, "Niğde Castle and Its Surroundings Historic Environment Protection Decisions and Special Project Areas” will be discussed briefly. In order to carry out on-site investigations for field research during the planning process, field studies were carried out in Niğde with the participation of architects, city planners specialized in conservation, art historian and restoration experts. Maps, plans, conservation board decisions, correspondence and other relevant information and documents regarding the Niğde Castle protected areas were collected from the Municipality, the Governor's Office and the Nevşehir Conservation Board. In this article, the Conservation Plan Decisions and Special Project Area Decisions developed for the "Revision of the Niğde Castle, Archaeological, Urban-Archaeological and Urban Sites Conservation Development Plan" are summarized. Niğde Castle and its immediate surroundings should be preserved and transferred to future generations with the cultural heritage and archeology values that have thousands of years of history and historical housing texture. In this regard, Niğde Municipality and Conservation Boards, the implementers of the Conservation Plan, have a great responsibility. Niğde Municipality is the most important local unit responsible for the protection, restoration and environmental arrangements of cultural assets through receiving the necessary technical and financial support from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Nigde Governorate. Collaboration with non-governmental organizations should be undertaken to inform, raise awareness and financial support of the public.

A Pioneer in Architectural Heritage and Conservation: Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc

Çiler Buket TOSUN — 2024-08-29

Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) – an architect, restorer, researcher, theorist, teacher and writer – was one of the most active and famous architects, first in France and then throughout the world after the second half of the 19^th century. The architecture of the Middle Ages in France was researched, documented, conserved and restored by his works. Unlike his contemporaries, he stood against the general attitude of imitating the historical forms in architecture. Instead he used a rational approach to determine the main principles of the structural and geometrical concepts of Gothic architecture through a comprehensive study of the medieval architectural heritage. He believed that the main principles of that period could be combined with a new technology to create an original and national contemporary architecture. His architectural theories spread throughout the world and profoundly influenced the 19^th century architecture, the applications of the neo-Gothic architecture, the theories of architectural restoration and the search of a national architecture.This study focuses on the pioneering role of Viollet-le-Duc in the preservation of architectural heritage. First, he is introduced with his life history and professional activities, then his activities in the field of conservation are presented through his approach to architectural heritage, his restoration theory and his selected restorations.